INTRODUCTION Declines in bird populations have led to concern for the future of migrating and resident bird species. These declines are largely the result of habitat disturbance or loss. Other reasons include pollution, pesticide use, illegal hunting, and brood parasitism. A coordinated, cooperative conservation initiative focusing on birds is necessary. In late 1990, the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation brought together interested parties to address this problem. Partners in Flight (PIF) was conceived as a voluntary, international coalition of government agencies, conservation groups, academic institutions, private businesses, and everyday citizens dedicated to keeping common birds common. The primary goal of Partners in Flight is to improve and channel resources for monitoring, research, management, and education programs involving native birds and their habitats. PIF complements the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, the Shorebird Conservation Plan, and the North American Colonial Waterbird Conservation Plan. Partners in Flight recognized the need for geographically-based conservation plans. As a result, The Flight Plan was introduced to participants at a 1995 PIF Conference in Cape May, New Jersey. The Flight Plan outlines the strategy for coordinating, developing, and writing Bird Conservation Plans (BCP). These plans utilize the most current scientific information and are designed for use by land managers and landowners. Bird Conservation Plans identify the species and habitats most in need of conservation. They establish population and habitat objectives in physiographic areas (ecoregions) or states. These plans not only identify the microhabitat requirements of priority species, but also focus on the types and quality of habitats required by birds on a landscape level. Conservation actions are recommended and partnerships are identified to accomplish the protection of bird populations. New Mexico Partners in Flight (NMPIF) is a state working group within the U.S. Partners in Flight program. The New Mexico BCP was developed by many people and benefits from their widely varied experience in the different regions and habitats of the state. These individuals acted both as reviewers and contributors; during statewide meetings and in focus groups. NMPIF meetings were designed to solicit core information for the New Mexico Plan. The collection of data and personal observations not available in the scientific literature was an important result of these meetings. This information provides an understanding of the different needs and approaches that local variations require. New Mexico also borrowed existing information from adjacent states, especially Arizona and Colorado.   THE PLANNING UNIT - NEW MEXICO New Mexico Geography New Mexico is located at the southern end of the Rocky Mountains, the western edge of the Great Plains, the northern end of the Sierra Occidental, and the southeastern edge of the Great Basin. It includes Chihuahuan desert and alpine habitats. State elevations range from 2800 to just over 11,000 feet. The Rio Grande is New Mexico's largest river. It divides the state from north to south and serves as a migration corridor. Other major river systems include the Pecos, Canadian, and Dry Cimarron in the east; the San Juan in the northwest; and the Mimbres, Gila, and San Franciso in the southwest. New Mexico has a total area of nearly 122,000 square miles (83 million acres). Approximately thirty-four percent (34.2%) of this land is managed by the federal government: the Army Corps of Engineers, Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service, United States Forest Service, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and various branches of the military. New Mexico State Trust lands form a network covering almost twelve percent (11.8%) of the state. Native American lands comprise approximately ten percent (9.4%) of the state. The Navajo Nation owns much of the northwestern quadrant of the state, especially along the Arizona border. Other Native American landowners include the sixteen pueblos, mainly located along the northern half of the Rio Grande. The Jicarilla and Mescalero Apaches own land in the north and southeast, respectively. Private land-owners own 44.6% of the total New Mexico land mass (Deason 1998). Within the state are portions of six physiographic areas (PAs) as defined by US Partners in Flight. These are the Mexican Highlands, Chihuahuan Desert, Mogollon Rim, Colorado Plateau, Pecos and Staked Plains, and the Southern Rockies. These Physiographic Areas comprise approximately the following acreage within New Mexico: 1) Mexican Highlands 3.5 million acres 2) Chihuahuan Desert 15 million acres 3) Mogollon Rim 7 million acres 4) Colorado Plateau 40 million acres 5) Pecos and Staked Plains 11 million acres 6) Southern Rocky Mountains 6.5 million acres A Physiographic Area (PA) is an area containing an assemblage of biological integrity, separate and distinct from surrounding areas. While this concept works relatively well for the eastern and central portions of the United States, it is not practical in New Mexico. In the West, some areas are clearly defined, while others are broken and divided, with patches of similar biological assemblages separated by large expanses of land. This is best exemplified by the Sky Islands of central and western New Mexico. These mountain ranges or peaks rise above the valley floor, creating an array of habitats from base to peak. They are not connected to similar habitats in the region. One example is Mount Taylor in west-central New Mexico: a single disjunct mountain rising out of Great Basin Shrubland, which contains alpine tundra at its peak. Each of these six Physiographic Areas contains several of the various habitats found in New Mexico. As a result, the NMPIF plan is based on habitats, rather than on Physiographic Areas. Major Habitat Types New Mexico PIF defines 19 separate habitat types within the state. These are predominantly classified by bird assemblages, rather than vegetative associations or other classification systems. These 19 habitats comprise five major categories: Grasslands, Wetlands, Shrublands, Forests and Other. Grasslands Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands - low-elevation grasslands in the southern half of the state. Priority species include Prairie Falcon, Sprague's Pipit, Botteri's Sparrow, Grasshopper Sparrow, Baird's Sparrow, and McCown's Longspur. Plains and Mesa Grassland - mid-elevation grasslands in the northern two-thirds of the state. Priority species include Ferruginous Hawk, Prairie Falcon, Mountain Plover, Long-billed Curlew, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, and Lark Bunting. Wet Meadows - high elevation grass and park lands. Priority species include Wilson's Phalarope and Bobolink. Alpine/Tundra - above timberline, covering the Sangre de Cristo peaks and a few others. Priority species include White-tailed Ptarmigan and Brown-capped Rosy-Finch. Wetlands Southwestern Riparian Woodland - woodlands along rivers in the southwestern quadrant of the state, often containing Arizona sycamore. Priority species include Common Black-Hawk, Elf Owl, Elegant Trogon, Violet-crowned Hummingbird, Gila Woodpecker, Willow Flycatcher, Bell's Vireo, Lucy's Warbler, and Abert's Towhee. Middle Elevation Riparian Woodland - woodlands along rivers in the southeastern and northern areas of the state, generally below ~7400 feet in elevation. Priority species include Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Lewis's Woodpecker, Willow Flycatcher, Summer Tanager, and Painted Bunting. High Elevation Riparian Woodland - woodlands along rivers or streams ranging from about 7000 feet to timberline. Priority species include Black Swift, Red-naped Sapsucker, American Dipper, MacGillivray's Warbler, and Painted Redstart. Non-Riparian Wetlands include playas, lakes, and marshes, which occur infrequently throughout New Mexico. Priority species include Clark's Grebe, American Bittern, White-faced Ibis, Bald Eagle, Snowy Plover, American Avocet, Least Tern, and Marsh Wren. Shrublands Chihuahuan Desert Shrub - occurs within the Chihuahuan Desert and ranges in elevation from 2800 to 4500 feet. Priority species include Gambel's Quail, Costa's Hummingbird, Loggerhead Shrike, Black-tailed Gnatcatcher, Bendire's Thrasher, Varied Bunting, and Scott's Oriole. Plains-Mesa Sand Shrub - occurs north of the Chihuahuan desert. From the Rio Grande Valley, it extends east to the Texas state line and north to areas near Santa Fe and Nara Visa. It ranges in elevation from 3500 to 6000 feet. Priority species include Lesser Prairie-Chicken, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Bank Swallow, and Scott's Oriole. Montane Shrubland - found on hillsides in small areas throughout much of New Mexico often located between other types of habitat, ranging in elevation from 5500 to 8000 feet. Priority species include Lucifer Hummingbird, MacGillivray's Warbler, Green-tailed Towhee, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, and Black-chinned Sparrow. Great Basin Desert Shrubland - located mainly in western Taos County and northwestern New Mexico. This ranges in elevation from 5500 to 7500 feet. Priority species include Loggerhead Shrike, Sage Thrasher, Bendire's Thrasher, and Sage Sparrow. Forests Pinyon-Juniper Woodland - found throughout the state above desert or grassland vegetation and below pine forest, ranging from 4500 to 7500 in elevation. Priority species include Ferruginous Hawk, Gray Flycatcher, Gray Vireo, and Black-throated Gray Warbler. Madrean Pine-Oak Forest - found only in the Animas and Peloncillo Mountains, ranging in elevation from 5000 to 7000 feet. Priority species include Montezuma Quail, Whiskered Screech-Owl, Elegant Trogon, Strickland's Woodpecker, and Black-throated Gray Warbler. Ponderosa Pine Forest - found in mountainous areas throughout the state at elevations of 6000 to 9000 feet. Priority species include Northern Goshawk, Flammulated Owl, Greater Pewee, Olive Warbler, Virginia's Warbler, and Grace's Warbler. Mixed Conifer Forest - found in all higher mountain ranges in New Mexico, including the Sacramento and Animas Mountains, generally between 7500 to 10,000 feet. Priority species include Mexican Spotted Owl, Williamson's Sapsucker, Olive-sided Flycatcher, and Red-faced Warbler. Spruce-Fir Forest - found at higher elevations, generally from 9500 feet to treeline, in northern mountain ranges, with small areas in the south. Priority species include Blue Grouse and Boreal Owl. Other Cave/Rock/Cliff - occurs throughout the state at all elevations. Priority species include Peregrine Falcon, Prairie Falcon, and Cave Swallow. Agriculture - Agricultural areas generally occur in association with the river valleys of New Mexico. They also exist in the eastern and southern grasslands. Elevations generally range from 3500 to 7000 feet. Priority species include Ferruginous Hawk, Scissor-tailed Flycatcher, Dickcissel and Bobolink. New Mexico Land History (Scurlock 1998) Native Americans have resided in New Mexico for centuries. Large population centers were established for commerce and protection as early as 800 A.D. Populated areas occurred primarily in the western and northern portions of the state. Archaeological evidence indicates that irrigation systems and terraced farming were practiced as early as 1000 A.D. Beams for buildings were cut in forests and hauled tremendous distances as evidenced by the ruins at Chaco Canyon, N.M. However, these communities were often abandoned after several hundred years. Some areas, such as Chaco Canyon, were deserted around 1300 A.D. At approximately the same time, the current pueblo settlements began along the Rio Grande, and along what is now the I-40 corridor from Albuquerque west to the Arizona border. Coronado's expedition in 1540 brought the first Europeans to New Mexico. Spanish colonization did not occur until the late 1500's with Juan de Oñate. Irrigation systems were created to grow crops and livestock, such as sheep and goats, was introduced. Drought has been a part of New Mexico since the last ice age. Severe droughts occurred regularly throughout the twentieth century, every 20-30 years on average. During these periods of drought, fires lasting up to several months were prevalent. Fire has contributed to the evolution of forests in New Mexico. Relatively frequent, low-intensity, episodic fires burned historically every 2-10 years on average in ponderosa and in lower elevation mixed-conifer forests. In spruce-fir and pinyon-juniper forests, fires burned every 50-300 years, but these were higher intensity, stand-replacing fires. Fires occurred more frequently during drought years. Severe fire seasons occurred in drought years that were preceded by wet years, as the result of fuel build-up. Prior to European settlement, regularly occurring fires maintained healthy open stands of trees with a grass component. This often prevented catastrophic crown fires. Low-intensity fires became much less frequent with the advent of overgrazing in the 1890's and full-scale fire suppression in the 1940's. Since then, fires have been more catastrophic and stand-replacing. Sheep grazing in New Mexico originated with early Spanish settlement. This created overgrazing and soil erosion conditions within the first thirty years. In the early 1600's, Spanish livestock doubled every 15 months. Recently completed studies show that the extent and duration of sheep-grazing in forests correlated with a decline in fire frequency even before full-scale fire suppression began around 1900. Native Americans have practiced agriculture for centuries. However, large-scale agriculture did not start until after the Pueblo Revolt in 1680, when the Spanish recolonized New Mexico in 1692. During the 1700's, 27,000 acres were tilled for crop cultivation. Since Anglo settlement of New Mexico, thousands more acres of land have been cultivated for agricultural crops. Cattle grazing began to affect New Mexico's grasslands and forests in 1820. By 1890, large-scale grazing was common, especially in more southerly areas. Grazing has tapered off, but damage from early grazing practices remains. Logging began in the early 1900's. This coincided with a decrease in fire frequency in the southern Madrean Pine-Oak areas and elsewhere. In the 1940's, logging operations removed the majority of standing trees from the Zuni Mountains of western New Mexico. Fire suppression in the region began at the same time as large-scale logging. However, it was not until the 1940's, that full fire-suppression become a statewide forestry practice. Full-scale fire suppression lasted until the mid-1980's when prescribed burning began to become policy. Because of fire suppression, New Mexico now experiences many more Acatastrophic fires", especially in ponderosa pine forests where this type of fire was historically rare. Cities and towns in New Mexico did not experience significant growth until 1950's. Since then, however, population centers have shown varying, but consistent growth patterns. National Wildlife Refuges, Grasslands, Parks, Forests, Monuments, and Military Reserves have all been acquired by the federal and state government. They include: National Wildlife Refuges - Bitter Lakes, Bosque del Apache, Grulla, Las Vegas, Maxwell, San Andres, and Sevilleta National Monuments - Bandelier, Capulin Volcano, Chaco Canyon, Gila Cliff Dwellings, Pecos, Petroglyph, Salinas, and White Sands Carlsbad National Park National Forests - Apache, Carson, Cibola, Coronado, Gila, Lincoln, and Santa Fe Kiowa National Grassland Bureau of Land Management Districts - Carlsbad, Farmington, Las Cruces, Rio Puerco, Roswell, Socorro, and Taos State Parks - generally associated with all major dam sites in the state; also includes Sugarite State Park State Wildlife Areas - Barker, Cimmaron, Milnesand, and Mescalero Sands US Department of Defense Lands - Cannon, Fort Bliss, Hollomon, Kirtland, and White Sands Missile Range History of New Mexico Avifauna With such a wide diversity of habitats, New Mexico has recorded the second highest number of bird species of any land-locked state in the U.S. More than 280 species of birds breed in New Mexico and the extensive grasslands are important for wintering birds. The Rio Grande serves as an important flyway for migrants. In the east, the Playa Lakes region is one of the most significant wetland habitats in the southern quarter of the Central Flyway for migrating and wintering birds. However, all birds have not flourished in the state. Sharp-tailed Grouse and Sage Grouse, once a part of New Mexico's breeding avifauna, were hunted by settlers and miners. By the early 1900's both were extirpated from the state. The Aplomado Falcon, once regular throughout the Chihuahuan Desert grasslands, experienced steep population declines in the 1920's and 30's. The last recorded nesting of this species in the state occurred in 1952. Buff-breasted Flycatchers were also recorded with some frequency in the southwestern forests until the 1940's, when they disappeared. Only since the 1990's, have these two species sporadically reappeared in New Mexico. The reasons for their declines are poorly understood but may reflect the changing landscape in the state or elsewhere on the continent. New Mexico has a long history of ornithological study. Twenty-nine species of birds have been identified in late prehistoric kiva (Native American religious buildings) murals. Spanish expeditions recorded large numbers of cranes, geese, turkey, quail, prairie chickens, and grouse. Anglo explorers also remarked upon these same birds. Army doctors, first attending expeditions in the 1850's, and then stationed at established forts, were the first to systematically report on and collect birds from the state. Ornithologists Woodhouse, Henry, and Kennerly all recorded over 170 species of birds in the state, along with seasonal occurrence data. (Scurlock, 1998). Frances Merriam Bailey began ornithological study in the early 1900's while traveling with her husband. In 1928, she published her first book - Birds of New Mexico - on the state's avifauna. J. Stokely Ligon, after several decades of work in the state, published New Mexico Birds and Where to Find Them in 1961. Following Ligon, John P. Hubbard wrote A Checklist of the Birds of New Mexico in 1970 and revised it in 1978. Important advances in the knowledge of and/or changes in bird distribution have occurred since then, yet the Revised Checklist remains the standard of knowledge for bird distribution and abundance. Since the late 1950's, important research on selected species and monitoring of sensitive areas has been conducted by William Baltosser, Jim Bednarz, William Howe, John Hubbard, Dale Stahlecker, Sartor O. Williams, III, and Dale Zimmerman, among others. The New Mexico Department of Game and Fish and the Share with Wildlife fund have sponsored many of these projects. Several inventories and long-term monitoring projects have taken place throughout the state. The following is a list of some of the larger studies and monitoring projects: 1. New Mexico Threatened and Endangered Species monitoring (NMDGF) 2. Federal Threatened and Endangered and Sensitive species inventories 3. New Mexico State University/University of New Mexico LTER Data 4. Bureau of Land Management IHICS Inventories 5. Rattlesnake Springs - The Nature Conservancy inventory 6. New Mexico Natural Heritage monitoring on White Sands Missile Range 7. Fort Bliss inventory and monitoring 8. Bosque del Apache NWR/ Rio Grande NC- United States Forest Service migration studies 9. The Nature Conservancy (BC) database 10. Hink and Ohmart - Rio Grande, 1984 11. Ohmart and Hildebrandt - Pecos River, 1982 12. Spotted Owl (R. Guitierrez, NM Heritage Program) 13. Northern Goshawk (P. Kennedy, NM Heritage Program) 14. Breeding Bird Surveys 15. Christmas Bird Counts 16. Sandia/Manzano HawkWatch sites 17. Rio Grande Bird Research (RGNC) - migration monitoring 18. NMG&F Waterfowl Surveys 19. San Andres NWR 20. Organ Mountains 21. NM Heritage grassland/wetland monitoring at Hollomon AFB 22. Cibola National Forest surveys 23. Ferruginous Hawk (Hawks Aloft, Inc.) AVIFAUNAL ANALYSIS Priority species NMPIF has identified priority birds for the state. These species are predominantly breeding species. Three species were added because of concern over wintering habitat: Sprague's Pipit, Baird's Sparrow, and McCown's Longspur. Breeding species were ranked from 1 to 5 in each of eight categories: Global Abundance (1 = Abundant, 5 = Very Rare), New Mexico Breeding Abundance (same as Global Abundance but specific to the state), Global Breeding Distribution (1 = >75% of N.A., 5 = < 10% of N.A.) New Mexico Breeding Distribution (same as Global Distribution but specific to the state), Threats to Breeding in New Mexico (1= No Known, 5 = Extirpation Likely), Importance of New Mexico to Breeding (1 = <1% of Total Breeding Distribution, 5 = >50% of Total Breeding Distribution, Global Winter Distribution (1 = Very Widespread, 5 = Very Local), Threats on the Wintering Grounds (Same Breakdown as Threats to Breeding). The scores and rankings for New Mexico birds are listed in Appendix C (New Mexico Breeding Species Priority Scores). Birds which scored 21 or higher are considered priority species. National PIF has also determined priority scores for New Mexico breeding birds, using a slightly different model (National Partners in Flight Priority Birds for New Mexico, Appendix B). New Mexico will continue to utilize the state-specific model until this National PIF model is perfected.   High Responsibility species National Partners in Flight (PIF) has determined population estimates for birds in each Physiographic Area (PA) of the United States. These were determined using either BBS data or the percent of the breeding range within each PA. PIF has not determined percentages for each state. However, estimates of species percentages were calculated based on both statewide estimates for each PA and known statewide bird distribution (Appendix B, National Partners in Flight Priority Scores for New Mexico Birds). PIF has determined that areas under 200,000 sq kilometers with more than 5% of a species breeding population, or areas greater than 200,000 sq kilometers with 10% of a species breeding population, have a high responsibility for that species survival. Based on the information provided by PIF, the New Mexico Partners in Flight working group has determined that the following species (in taxonomic order) are birds for which New Mexico has a high level of responsibility (ie. those species with over 10% of their North American breeding population in the state): (NOTE: Species listed in the habitat sections in Table 1 under high responsibility will be those species which do not already rank as a priority species.) Common Black Hawk Zone-tailed Hawk Lesser Prairie-Chicken Montezuma Quail Scaled Quail Gambel's Quail Snowy Plover Mountain Plover Greater Roadrunner Flammulated Owl Burrowing Owl Spotted Owl (lucida) Lesser Nighthawk Common Nighthawk Common Poorwill Whip-poor-will (arizonae) White-throated Swift Lucifer Hummingbird Black-chinned Hummingbird Broad-tailed Hummingbird Lewis's Woodpecker Ladder-backed Woodpecker Greater Pewee Willow Flycatcher (extimus) Gray Flycatcher Say's Phoebe Ash-throated Flycatcher Cassin's Kingbird Plumbeous Vireo Mexican Jay Pinyon Jay Chihuahuan Raven Violet-green Swallow Mexican Chickadee Bridled Titmouse Juniper Titmouse Pygmy Nuthatch Cactus Wren Rock Wren Canyon Wren Western Bluebird Mountain Bluebird Bendire's Thrasher Curve-billed Thrasher Crissal Thrasher Olive Warbler Virginia's Warbler Lucy's Warbler Red-faced Warbler Painted Redstart Hepatic Tanager Green-tailed Towhee Canyon Towhee Cassin's Sparrow Rufous-crowned Sparrow Black-chinned Sparrow Lark Sparrow Black-throated Sparrow Sage Sparrow Dark-eyed Junco Yellow-eyed Junco Pyrruloxia Hooded Oriole Scott's Oriole   Conservation Issues Grassland and riparian habitats have been identified as those most in need of conservation in New Mexico. W. Whitford (pers. comm.) observes that Chihuahuan Desert Grasslands, as they existed prior to European settlements, and may be the most endangered biome in the United States. Overgrazing, fire suppression, and shrub encroachment is a problem in grasslands further north as well as in the Chihuahuan Desert. Riparian areas suffer from a variety of problems. The invasion of exotics, such as salt cedar and Russian-olive, affects a large portion of Middle Elevation and Southwestern Riparian Woodlands. However, monitoring along the Pecos River in the early 1980's, indicated that the salt cedar in the lower Pecos Valley supports large populations of Yellow-billed Cuckoo and Summer Tanager as well as other species. This does not seem to be the case for other New Mexico river systems, possibly because the lower Pecos is the only river system in the state that did not have cottonwood-willow habitat prior to salt cedar invasion. Other exotics, such as European Starlings, may have some effect on cavity nesters in Riparian and Urban areas. Overgrazing in riparian areas reduces the understory and often results in lack of cottonwood or willow regeneration. River damming halts the dynamic river flooding that is crucial to the regeneration of cottonwood forests in the southwest. The Gila River remains the only large undammed river in the state. While large scale deforestation of riparian woodlands is not a current problem, the lack ofthe majority of riparian woodland below Caballo Dam is a direct result of earlier riparian destruction. Non-riparian wetlands are also affected by draining and lowering of water tables, which may dry cienagas and marshes. Additionally, playas in eastern and southern New Mexico have been used as industrial waste dumping sites. These are also areas where agricultural chemicals build up as the result of irrigation run-off. These wetlands are subject to sedimentation due to intense grazing of the herbaceous layers in surrounding uplands, as well as to direct grazing pressure. The large reservoirs created by dams along rivers have increased habitat for colonial waterbirds through siltation of the upper end of these lakes and salt cedar invasion. Shrublands have increased in the state as a result of grassland overgrazing and tfire suppression. Areas west of Taos have turned into sage flats, increasing the numbers of sage obligates at the expense of grassland species. Mesquite has moved northward and creosotebush has invaded from hillsides to flat areas where grass was historically prevalent. Additionally, juniper has encroached upon grassland areas at higher elevations and more northerly latitudes. Forest fire suppression has occurred throughout the state. Forests with a history of high fire frequency have been dramatically altered while other forests, adapted to lower fire frequencies, have not. In higher elevations, the loss of aspen cover due to fire suppression is a concern. Logging has impacted ponderosa, mixed conifer and spruce-fir forests in the state. Some ranges such as the Zunis, were completely logged by the mid-1940's. Forest management has changed from early in the 20th century and sustainable logging is now promoted on U.S. Forest Service-managed lands. Forest grazing has historically reduced fine fuels and contributed to a drop in fire frequency. In some areas, grazing has drastically altered forest habitats. Projects, such as the summer herding program in the San Pedro Wilderness, demonstrate that well-managed grazing can be compatible with forest management. Publicly owned lands (either federal or state) constitute almost half of New Mexico's area. The management of these lands for multiple use has, and continues to, present challenges for habitat conservation. These issues may be of great concern to private landowners and may further polarize land management issues. Native Americans have traditionally managed their lands with little development, but many of the habitat problems outlined above may also affect Native lands. Habitat requirements for the regular breeding avifauna in the state are sometimes not well understood. Few large-scale habitat studies have taken place in New Mexico. Many species have different breeding requirements in this state than elsewhere in their range. Even within the state, breeding requirements for certain species may differ, eg. Southwestern Willow Flycatcher, and may be understudied. The processes for maintaining habitats and the mechanics of habitat restoration are relatively unknown. While some studies have begun, such as Chihuahuan Desert work at the Jornada Experimental Range under Dr. Kris Havstad, ecological processes in other habitats remain unexplored. Breeding Bird Surveys (BBS) were initiated in the 1960's through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. This body of information, along with previous ornithological work in the state, provides the core of known breeding distribution and bird population trend information for New Mexico. BBS does not measure each of the NM PIF habitats and it may combine several habitats into one route. It is also spotty and road-dependent. Early ornithological work was often opportunistic. Our knowledge of breeding distribution and population trends of breeding birds has many unknowns. Conservation of bird species is difficult if we do not know where to concentrate our efforts. Conservation Opportunities Despite many of the concerns presented above, there are opportunities for bird habitat conservation within the state. Currently there are small to medium-sized movements working toward bird habitat conservation. Two of the larger conservation groups in the state include Joint Ventures of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan: Playa Lakes and Intermountain West. Organizations by and for ranchers and environmentalists, designed to bring about improved rangeland habitat, are beginning demonstration projects and outreach to other ranchers. The Malpais Borderlands group, in southwestern New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, promoted and implemented a controlled burn in the Peloncillo Mountains. The Quivira Coalition has organized many weekend information sharings about rangeland health and cattle management issues. More traditional conservation organizations such as the Audubon Society and The Nature Conservancy are funneling money into riparian restoration in the north and southwestern portions of the state. Research into little-known New Mexico birds and habitat management is being conducted. Hawks Aloft and The Natural Heritage Program have contributed valuable research on birds such as the Ferruginous Hawk, the Lesser Prairie-Chicken and the Snowy Plover. Studies on Chihuahuan Desert habitat and restoration continue at the Jornada Experimental Range and at Sevilleta National Wildlife Refuge. Research into salt cedar regeneration and removal at Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge has increased our knowledge about controlling this exotic species in wetland and riparian areas. Projects that encompass varied aspects of bird conservation: bird research and monitoring, habitat restoration research, education, habitat enhancement, are gaining favor with funding organizations. Funding proposals with many partners, rather than single organizations, are beginning to be heavily favored as well. Funding proposals for multi-faceted projects using a number of different agencies/partners are more likely to be funded in the future. The need for a statewide Breeding Bird Atlas and a statewide breeding bird monitoring program have been identified as top priorities for New Mexico bird conservation. Statewide cooperation may be essential to plan and implement either of these two projects. Additional needs for research and monitoring, which may be carried out by smaller organizations or individuals, are identified in the body of this plan.   HOW TO INTERPRET THE HABITAT SECTIONS There are five basic habitat sections in this document: Forests, Wetlands, Grasslands, Shrublands, and Other. Within these sections, there are nineteen specific habitat categories. These are predominantly classified by bird assemblages, rather than vegetative associations or other classification systems. Within each section are several sub-headings. A description of the information included under each sub-heading follows: Description, importance and conservation status This section includes descriptions of dominant vegetation, distribution throughout the state, known major disturbance factors, and the land-managers of that habitat. As appropriate, various vegetation subgroups are noted within each habitat along with any accompanying species that differ from the habitat as a whole. Physiographic Areas covered This is a list of the Physiographic Areas within which the habitat can be found. It is drawn from the Physiographic Areas delineated by National Partners in Flight. Six Physiographic Areas are found in New Mexico: the Mexican Highlands, Chihuahuan Desert, Mogollon Rim, Pecos and Staked Plains, Colorado Plateau, and the Southern Rocky Mountains. Associated priority species from Appendices B and C Table 1. Species are listed in taxonomic order, in table format. Within each of the following sub-headings, no bird is considered a higher priority than any other, e.g. within the Highest Priority Species in Montane Shrub, Lucifer Hummingbird is no more of a priority than Black-chinned Sparrow. Highest Priority species scored 21 or higher, according to NM PIF, and warrant some conservation action. These are species for which NMPIF has determined population and/or habitat objectives. Priority species are those which 1) scored 21 or higher but were judged not to need conservation actions at this time, or 2) are highest priority elsewhere but this is not considered to be their optimal habitat. High Responsibility species are those from Appendix B that are not already priority species. (Also see explanation under High Responsibility Species above.) Additional Representative Species are those that fill a niche not otherwise represented by priority species. Bird habitat requirements, Population and/or Habitat Objectives Within each habitat description, highest priority species accounts are placed according to taxonomic order. No implication as to priority is intended. Additional priority, high responsibility, or representative species may be included. Associated species can be found under species' names. Many of New Mexico's breeding species are associated with the priority species. Managing habitat for the representative species is likely to benefit the associated species as well. Underlined species are priority or high responsibility species. Habitat requirements are listed in bullet format for each species. Some information is cited as personal comments. These may be unpublished data or personal observations. A general note on the specie's Distribution follows. Many New Mexico breeding species have a smaller distribution than that of the habitat as a whole. It is important to note which species can occur in an area. It may not be appropriate to manage for all species listed in each habitat. For example, Middle Elevation Riparian Forests covers many of the streams throughout the state. Managing for Yellow-billed Cuckoo would be appropriate in both the north and the south. However, managing for Painted Bunting would be appropriate in Carlsbad, but not Espanola. The opposite would be true for Lewis's Woodpecker. Population Objectives and/or Habitat Objectives. The first line in this category notes any available Breeding Bird Survey information (Sauer et al. 1997). The region for which the information was gathered is listed first. Statistically valid information is often unavailable from New Mexico as the result of too few state routes that regularly detect a species. In those cases, information was taken from the next closest area: either the Physiographic Area, Region 2 (includes the states of Texas, Oklahoma and Arizona), the West (the states from New Mexico north to Montana and west to the Pacific Ocean, not including Alaska) or, if necessary, the entire United States. Additional information from other regions, has been added when appropriate . The "T" value is the trend, either positive or negative for that species in the region outlined, between 1966-1996. The "p" value is the significance value. NMPIF has judged any value from 0.05 to 0.00 to be significant. The "N" value is the number of routes from which the trend was determined. "RA" refers to the average relative abundance of the species on each individual route. For further information on how the statistics were derived consult Sauer et al. 1997. Population and/or habitat objectives are set for each species. Population objectives are determined using a variety of inventory methods. They differ for several reasons, including: 1) if baseline data was available, 2) size of the known population in the state, 3) how well known the habitat requirements are for the species, 4) breeding biology, e.g., they only breed during wet years, 5) how widespread the known habitats are, e.g., Riparian Woodland (focused) vs. Montane Shrubland (widespread), and 6) whether or not the population can be appropriately monitored by BBS sampling. Habitat objectives are based on known habitat requirements. Some birds and habitats are more extensively studied than others. It was occasionally necessary for NMPIF to make assumptions while setting objectives. These were determined using the best available scientific knowledge. They are bold-faced within the text and clearly stated. NMPIF intends this plan to be a dynamic document: updated and revised as new information is obtained. We hope this plan will guide scientists in their research. Habitat Strategy These are recommendations for the landscape as a whole. If large blocks of habitat are managed, guidelines are stated for the overall look of the land. These are intended to be general guidelines. Habitats are naturally dynamic. Floods occur during wet years and fires during dry years. These natural processes are should be expected and encouraged. Different species depend on different stages of land development. These guidelines are intended to provide the best mix of habitat for the most species of birds over a long period of time. Disturbance regimes, which may be used in managing the land, are outlined along with the effect they may have on specific specie's populations. Research and Monitoring Needs The stated research needs should answer any questions raised or assumptions generated by the above discussions. They are listed by species and are in taxonomic order, not priority. Certain birds are recommended for monitoring. These are priority or high responsibility birds that have decreasing trends as noted by the Breeding Bird Survey. This includes information not highlighted in habitat requirements or other sections. Education (optional discussion) Any important public-education issues are listed here. Table 2: This outlines habitat requirements for highlighted species in table format for easy reference.