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New Mexico
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Ponderosa Pine
Description, importance and conservation status:

This pine-dominated forest is found in northern New Mexico, south to the Sacramento and Guadalupe Mountains in the east, and west to the Mogollon Rim. Elevations of this habitat extend from 6000 to 9000 feet.

Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is the dominant tree in this forest. It may share dominance with pinyon pine (P. edulis) and gambel (Quercus gambelii), gray (Q. grisea) and wavyleafed oak (Q. undulata). Other common associated trees include one-seed (Juniperus monosperma), alligator (J. deppeana), and Rocky Mountain juniper (J.scopulorum). New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana) or sumac (Rhus spp.) may also be found. A variety of plants may share the understory including Arizona fescue (Festuca arizonica), mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana), screwleaf muhly (M.virescens), skunkbush (Rhus trilobata), pine dropseed (Blepharoneuron tricholepis), mutton grass (Poa fendleriana), squirreltail (Sitanion sp.), Kentucky bluegrass (Poa spp.), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), deervetch (Lotus wrightii) and sedges (Carex spp.). Sites with a higher gravel content may have snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus) and wood rose (Rosa woodsii). Higher areas may have kinnikinnik (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) and common juniper (J. communis) (Dick-Peddie 1993).

Succession in the grassy pine forest habitat has been thoroughly documented. Recurrent, low-intensity fires occurred at 2-10 year intervals prior to about 1900, when fires suppression actions were taken. These fires helped maintain open, parklike vistas, with small patches of tree regeneration or small grassy openings (Cooper 1960 in Scurlock 1998). Since about 1900, most fires have been put out. As a consequence, there is increased density of pine regeneration, often in dense thickets, abundance of dwarf mistletoe (a tree parasite), and suppressed herbaceous understory (Dick-Peddie 1993).

Juniper or oak can dominate for a period of time in a successional pine forest, especially after a severe disturbance. This is often because a stand-replacing fire or clear-cutting occurred on the site. Ponderosa pine eventually shades out these trees relegating them to an understory shrub. Small tracts of oak in a pine forest have important wildlife value. If pines do not regenerate quickly, oak or pinyon-juniper forests can replace ponderosa.

Allen and Breshears (1998) documented the effects of drought on the lower elevational edges of ponderosa pine forest. Their study area in north-central New Mexico suffered a prolonged drought in the 1950's. In less than five years, at the end of this extended drought, a large-scale die-off of ponderosa was noted. Ponderosas at lower elevations were affected at a greater proportion than those at higher elevations. In their place a pinyon-juniper woodland dominated and the shift from ponderosa to pinyon-juniper has remained for forty years. Not all the ponderosa died off, but where there were large patches of ponderosa, the habitat has become fragmented. Allen and Breshears attribute this rapid change primarily to the combined effects of drought and fire suppression. Fire suppresion had allowed pinyon-juniper to invade pine forest before the drought occured.

The vast majority of these lands are managed by the U.S. Forest Service. Also portions of this habitat are owned by the Jicarilla and Mescalero Apaches and the Navajo Nation. Private land-owners own a small percentage, mostly in the Mogollon Rim Physiographic Area.

Impacts to this habitat type include 1) fire and fire suppression, 2) grazing, 3) logging, 4) development, and 5) recreation.

Physiographic Areas covered: Mogollon Rim, Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains

Associated priority species from Appendices B and C:
Table 1. Ponderosa Pine Priority Species

Highest Priority	Priority	High Responsibility
Northern Goshawk Mexican Spotted Owl Flammulated Owl Greater Pewee Olive Warbler Virginia's Warbler Grace's Warbler	Whip-poor-will Lewis's Woodpecker Williamson's Sapsucker Olive-sided Flycatcher Dusky Flycatcher Pygmy Nuthatch Western Bluebird Red-faced Warbler	Broad-tailed Hummingbird Western Wood-Pewee Plumbeous Vireo Hepatic Tanager Dark-eyed Junco
Additional Representative Species: Band-tailed Pigeon

Bird Habitat Requirements, Population and/or Habitat Objectives:
(in taxonomic order)

Northern Goshawk _{(Squires and Reynolds 1997)}

Associated Species: Wild Turkey, Williamson's Sapsucker, Northern Flicker, Steller's Jay, American Robin, Plumbeous Vireo, Grace's Warbler, Western Tanager, Red Crossbill

primarily in Ponderosa pine forest, can use Douglas-fir, other pines and aspen
nest stands can be as small as 25-250ac (10-100ha) typically in mature to old-growth forest primarily with large trees
60%- 90% canopy closure is most consistent feature of nesting habitat (average 76%)
often near the bottom of moderate hill slopes with sparse ground cover
nesting habitat can be single or multi-storied
water often near nests, can be a pond or ephemeral stream, tends to avoid loud-rushing streams
frequently near forest openings, i.e. trails, downed tree openings, or openings in understory conifers, but avoids light-duty roads
forages in forests with greater tree density, foraging preference increases with canopy closure
conifers preferred for nesting; will also use aspen

Distribution: Breeds throughout the state except in the Pecos and Staked Plains. It is least common in the Chihuahuan Desert mountain ranges and those of the Mexican Highlands

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

in the West, T = 2.7%, p = 0.00, N = 30, RA=0.01 (Sauer et al. 1997)
maintain or increase current known 2 nesting pairs in the Mexican Highlands
maintain or increase populations in the Mogollon Rim, Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains
maintain a no-harvest policy for populations in the Burro Mountains south to the Mexican border. This population may be so significantly different as to warrant subspecific status and protection in the state as well as the country
maintain a ban on falconry harvesting until there is clear scientific evidence that the New Mexico population is currently self-sustaining.
Stop logging activities, even minimal disturbance, within 600ac of active nests and within established post-fledging areas
maintain forest with high average canopy closure (60-90%) especially in nesting habitat
maintain open understory with dead and downed logs
refer to the following document for more specific habitat recommendations: Reynolds et al. 1992.

Band-tailed Pigeon _{(Yanishevsky and Petring-Rupp 1997)}

Associated Species: Northern Goshawk, Long-eared Owl, Lewis's Woodpecker, Acorn Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Olive-sided Flycatcher, Greater Pewee, Steller's Jay, Red-faced Warbler

multi-layered forests containing large trees with an understory
forages primarily in oaks but uses boreal meadows as well
diet consists of acorns; also uses berries associated with manzanita, madrone and elderberry
nests opportunistically depending on food supply
nests located primarily in conifers, 15-40ft (4-12m) above ground, occasionally in oaks
generally nests in more open areas such as forest edges, heads of canyons or open forest
territories must contain water, and at least one tree taller than the canopy
often has strong nest site fidelity from year to year

Distribution: Occurs throughout the state excluding the Pecos and Staked Plains

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

in Region 2, T = -0.8%, p = 0.86, N = 16, RA=0.63 (Sauer et al. 1997)
maintain or increase multi-tiered forest structure
maintain taller snags or live trees than the average
encourage appropriate growth of oaks and berry producing shrubs
encourage prescribed burns for the creation of snags

Flammulated Owl _{(McCallum 1994)}

Associated Species: Broad-tailed Hummingbird, Acorn Woodpecker, Williamson's Sapsucker, Northern Flicker, Western Wood-Pewee, Pygmy Nuthatch, Western Bluebird, Grace's Warbler, Chipping Sparrow, Cassin's Finch

most closely associated with open ponderosa pine forest, but may use Douglas- or white fir and blue spruce
often also associated with aspen or larger shrub oaks, and clearings
a secondary cavity nester
in NM, nest holes used are made by acorn woodpeckers, northern flicker or sapsuckers (D. Arsenault pers.comm.)
appears somewhat colonial but may be more related to specific nesting requirement than behavior, i.e. availability of appropriate nest cavities (D. Arsenault pers. comm.)
almost exclusively insectivorous; U.S. populations are highly migratory

Distribution: Found primarily in western two-thirds of state, wherever appropriate habitat exists

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

no BBS data available
in the Mogollon Rim, Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains maintain a density of 2 pair per 100ac in suitable habitat (NOTE: large tracts of apparently suitable habitat are not occupied in NM)
maintain and recruit snags for nesting cavities, especially in deciduous trees
maintain health of acorn woodpecker, northern flicker, and sapsucker populations

Mexican Spotted Owl _{(Gutiérrez et al. 1995)}

Associated Species: Band-tailed Pigeon, Whip-poor-will, Dusky Flycatcher, Virginia's Warbler, Grace's Warbler, Hepatic Tanager, Dark-eyed Junco

primarily use steep, walled canyons with mixed conifer, oak, or ponderosa pine-oak forests, generally with a riparian component. In the Mexican Highlands uses Madrean Pine-Oak habitat
in forested areas, selects old-growth forests or those with more complex structure than the surrounding forest (Seamans and Gutierrez 1994)
owls may reoccupy territories after several years of non-occupation
home territories range from 645-3828ac (261 - 1550ha) and during nesting period most activity occurs within a 598ac (242ha) area around the nest (Block et al. 1995)
roosting areas are primarily in mature or old-growth forests, stands usually have uneven-aged trees, are multi-storied, have dense canopy cover, contain downed logs and snags
nesting often occurs on cliffs, rock faces, or on mistletoe brooms in trees
fledglings often depend on oak thickets for roosting and to avoid predator detection

Distribution: Occurs throughout the state except for the Pecos and Staked Plains. There are no current records of breeding Mexican Spotted Owls in the Chihuahuan Desert mountains in New Mexico though it does breed in appropriate ranges in Texas in this Physiographic Area.

Population and/or Habitat Objectives

no BBS data available
maintain or increase current populations in the Southern Rocky Mountains, especially the Jemez Mtns (the core northern population), also in the Guadalupe, Sacramento, Zuni, Chuska, Magdalena, San Mateo, Black Range, Pinos Altos, and Mogollon ranges , and other isolated ranges where they currently exist
limit or cease activities within 600ac of known nest sites
maintain limited logging activities within 600ac of previously occupied sites
limit oak removal in areas of known occurrence, maintaining a closed canopy understory (especially important for fledged young)
follow guidelines in USFWS 1995

Greater Pewee _{(NM PIF)}

Associated Species: Band-tailed Pigeon, Mexican Chickadee, Olive Warbler, Red-faced Warbler, Western Tanager, Dark-eyed Junco

tall conifer forests with clearings
snags or live trees rising above the canopy important for foraging

Distribution: Found from the southwestern Mogollon Rim, south to the Animas mountains

Population and/or Habitat Objectives

no BBS data available
maintain current populations in the Animas, Pinos Altos and Mogollon mountains
maintain tall, open forests with edges
maintain snags or live trees rising above average canopy height

Pygmy Nuthatch_{(Yanishevsky and Petring-Rupp 1997)}

Associated Species: Flammulated Owl, Broad-tailed Hummingbird, Williamson's Sapsucker, Hairy Woodpecker, Northern Flicker, Western Wood-Pewee, Western Bluebird, Grace's Warbler, Western Tanager, Chipping Sparrow, Cassin's Finch, Red Crossbill

primarily found in ponderosa pine but may be in ponderosa-aspen or aspen willow communities
prefers older growth forests which provide habitat for breeding, roosting and foraging
83% of nuthatch density explained by total foliage volume, snag density and trunk volume; foliage and snag density are positively correlated, trunk volume is negatively correlated
populations also increase with increased distance from forest trails
nests in dead ponderosa pines where the wood is well-rotted, very rarely in aspen
nests from 5-60ft (1.5-18m) up (generally above 25ft/8m) in cavities with limbs near the cavity opening
prefers nesting snags that are 16.4-38in (42-97cm) dbh, averaging around 25in (64cm)dbh
observed only in unburned ponderosa pine control areas in Colorado

Distribution: Occurs throughout the state except in the Pecos and Staked Plains.

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

in Region 2, T = -0.5%, p = 0.82, N = 24, RA=3.53 (Sauer et al. 1997)
encourage selection cutting and thinning of mature ponderosa pines in areas where this species is present
retain dead, unmarketable ponderosa pine trees standing in forests, especially snags with broken tops
nest boxes placed in the interior of forests have shown beneficial results

Olive Warbler _{(Lowther and Nocedal 1997)}

Associated Species: Greater Pewee, Hutton's Vireo, Mexican Chickadee, Pygmy Nuthatch, Western Bluebird, Yellow-rumped Warbler, Grace's Warbler, Red-faced Warbler, Chipping Sparrow, Red Crossbill

open ponderosa or Chihuahua pine and Douglas-fir forests often with an oak understory
forages primarily in pines, occasionally in oaks
nests located in conifers far out from trunk
nests range from 30-70ft (9-21m) above ground

Distribution: Found in the southern Mogollon Rim; Black and Mogollon ranges south

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

no BBS data available
maintain presence in the Animas Mountains and the southern Mogollon Rim within each of 3.9 square mi(10 square km) blocks of suitable habitat
maintain open, park-like forest with larger pines

Virginia's Warbler _{(Yanishevsky and Petring-Rupp 1997)}

Associated Species: Band-tailed Pigeon, Whip-poor-will, Broad-tailed Hummingbird, Acorn Woodpecker, Dusky Flycatcher, Hepatic Tanager, Spotted Towhee

ponderosa pine forest, pinyon-juniper woodlands, or riparian thickets, occasionally Douglas-fir forests: always open with well-developed herbaceous or woody understory
dense understory is critical and scrubby hillsides considered a special requirement; high litter cover and high shrub species richness are also associated with nesting areas
uses a variety of understory species for nesting but especially Gambel oak
percentage of dead trees is negatively correlated with nesting areas
nests built on ground, in a depression or at base of a shrub, concealed by dead leaves or overhanging foliage or grasses

Distribution: Breeds throughout the state, though less common on the Pecos and Staked Plains.

Population and/or Habitat Objectives

in the Southern Rocky Mountains, T = -1.2%, p = 0.79, N = 15, RA=1.23; in Region 2, T = 4.2%, p = 0.13, N = 20, RA=1.72 (Sauer et al. 1997)
maintain presence in the Mexican Highlands and the Mogollon Rim within each 3.9mi square blocks of suitable habitat

maintain density of 1pair per 40ac in suitable habitat in the Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains

maintain high percentage of live understory, especially oaks on slopes; plan burns accordingly

Grace's Warbler _{(Yanishevsky and Petring-Rupp 1997)}

Associated Species: Flammulated Owl, Lewis's Woodpecker, Williamson's Sapsucker, Western Wood-Pewee, Dusky Flycatcher, Plumbeous Vireo, Pygmy Nuthatch, Western Bluebird, Olive Warbler, Western Tanager, Chipping Sparrow, Red Crossbill

ponderosa pine forest sometimes with a scrub oak component
considered a mature pine obligate; preference given to robust, mature or old-growth forest
feeds in the upper portions of robust pines on branches, occasionally aerially
nests found in trees from 20-60ft (6-18m) above the ground
removal of trees 40-70ft (12-21m) tall may have a detrimental effect on populations
territories can be as small as 0.6ac (0.24ha) to 2.1ac (0.83ha)

Distribution: Occurs throughout the state except for the Pecos and Staked Plains; much less common in the New Mexico ranges in the Chihuahuan Desert.

Population and/or Habitat Objectives:

in NM, T = -6.5%, p = 0.12, N = 14, RA=1.10 (Sauer et al. 1997)
maintain density of 1 pair per 40ac in the Mexican Highlands, Mogollon Rim, Colorado Plateau and Southern Rocky Mountains in suitable habitat
stabilize and increase current negative trend on BBS routes in the state
use logging, grazing and controlled burn practices which maintain high-quality older growth ponderosa forest with relatively open understory

Overall Habitat Strategies:

Over time and a large landscape, an optimal goal is:

25 - 30% mature ponderosa pine savanna
15 - 25% open meadow
30 - 60% uneven-aged ponderosa pine and other trees, with an oak understory
1-5% aspen forest

Landscape, soil conditions, and elevation will determine the mix at any particular site. In general, a higher percentage of mixed conifer and aspen should occur at higher elevations and on north-facing slopes. At lower elevations, a higher percentage of ponderosa pine savanna is more appropriate. Oak grows best in soils on hillsides and slopes and should be managed for there.

Ponderosa pine savanna consists of mainly of large, mature (often old-growth) ponderosa pine with an open understory of grasses and forbs and few other trees. On drier soils, an average 30 trees (not just ponderosa) per acre may be a target. In more mesic areas, 50 trees per acre should be more appropriate (USFS 1995). Retaining old-growth ponderosa pine forest wherever possible will aid the creation and enhancement of savanna.

Grazing - Short-term/rest-rotation grazing reinvigorates grasses, while limiting soil compaction, erosion, and soil dehydration. If fire is allowed or reintroduced into the managment scheme, this will limit the growth of understory shrubs and trees. Long-term grazing, or year-long grazing in one pasture, is harmful to grasses and forbs growing beneath large trees. With the loss of grasses, there is no buildup of fine fuels to maintain fire, which is an integral part of this ecosystem.

Fire - In general, fire sweeps through this habitat type every two to seven years under non-interference conditions.

Cool fire is characterized by low flames (2-3 ft. high), burning grass and young shrubs and rarely burning larger, older trees. One desired benefit is that a few older trees will die in the fire, creating snags that are an important part of the ecology of the forest. It does not create conditions that sterilize the soil, killing the necessary micro-organisms that help in the water intake process for plants and the breakdown of organic material into soil. Prescribed and "let-burn" policies should be established or maintained.

Hot fire - These fires are harmful, often stand-replacing fires, using dense understory shrubs and trees to "ladder" up to the crowns of older trees. These generally occur where fuel build-up allows fire to burn through an area killing all or most of the trees in an area. These fires can sterilize soil, creating conditions that do not allow a quick vegetative recovery.

Logging - mechanical logging can be helpful in thinning areas that need opening. While horse logging operations are more desirable than truck operations, it may be impossible to find individuals or groups who log in this manner. However, horse logging may pose problems with noxious weed introduction and creation of ruts by dragging logs.

When planning sales, it is important to consider the above objectives for ponderosa savanna when tagging trees for removal. In general, retain large trees on every acre on which they occur. Design sales so that the healthiest trees remain. Retain trees in natural spacing designs. If land is already in good condition, leave the same percentages of all age classes on the landscape as before it was logged. Dead trees are important to the overall health of a forest. Limit cutting of standing, dead trees. Mechanically-created snags are generally not successful.

Salvage logging is now permitted in burned areas. However, it is not appropriate to log all available salvage timber. Salvage sales should occur only if current roads are close enough to damaged areas to permit ease of logging.

Thinning - Thinning is desirable where standing dead trees remain in the same percentage as previous live trees. This can be a useful practice in maintaining forest health, especially in Ponderosa/Oak forest (H. Schwartz pers. com.). In the case of catastrophic fires, some matter is necessary to stop the erosion process and allow regeneration of soil. One hundred to 1000ac should be salvaged and remaining timber used for contour filling and other actions.

Road building/improvement - Building or improvement of roads is often required for logging and thinning. It can also be necessary for fire management and grazing. If roads must be built or improved, obliteration of these roads should be a goal once the activity is complete (H. Schwartz pers. com.).

Dwarf Mistletoe - this parasite is indictative of an unhealthy state in trees. In areas where mistletoe is abundant, a reduction in trees through mechanical means may be recommended. Since mistletoe can shoot seeds as far as 60ft., a containment zone of no more than 65ft. should be established.

However, true mistletoe is a vital part of the ecosystem and some birds find mistletoe highly desirable. Areas with true mistletoe should be left alone.

Research and monitoring needs:

1. Determine current viability of Northern Goshawk populations. Determine the impact falconry harvesting on New Mexico Northern Goshawk populations. Determine what effect harvesting of young in the nest may have on nest success.

2. Determine limiting factors for Spotted Owls in the Southern Rocky Mountain region.

3. Determine current populations of Flammulated Owl. Determine why areas of apparently suitable habitat are not occupied.

4. Determine or estimate the current number and density of breeding Greater Pewee pairs.

Additional species for which monitoring is recommended:

Education:

Education needs to occur about the importance of fire in ponderosa pine forest. The differences between stand-replacing fires and cool, low-intensity fires need to be conveyed to the public.

Table 2. Ponderosa Pine Forest Priority Species: Habitat Factors

Species	Vegetation Composition/ Structure	Abiotic Factors	Landscape Factors	Special Factors
NOGO	old growth ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, aspen with 60-90% canopy closure; open understory with shrubby component		nests often found at bottom of moderately steep slopes	patches with openings such as clearings, forest trails and primitive, mostly unused roads; often nests near water
BTPI	ponderosa or spruce-fir forests with oaks	open multi-layered stories with an understory		needs edges and trees or snags which extend above the canopy; territories always include water
FLOW	open ponderosa pine forest; Douglas- or white fir and blue spruce; aspen or larger shrub oaks, and clearings			nest holes used are made by acorn woodpeckers, northern flicker or sapsuckers; almost exclusively insectivorous; highly migratory
MESO	mixed conifer or ponderosa pine-oak forests, generally with a riparian component.		often occupy areas with steep, walled canyons	roosting areas are primarily in mature or old-growth forests; nesting often occurs on cliffs or rock faces
PYNU	ponderosa pine, very occasionally in aspen	old-growth ponderosa, nesting snags average 25in dbh, negatively correlated with trunk volume	nesting cavites must have limb nearby
OLWA	open ponderosa or Chihuahua pine and Douglas-fir forests often with an oak understory			nests located in conifers far out from trunk; nests range from 30-70ft (9-21m) above ground
VIWA	a variety of open forests with wide variety of shrubs, especially Gambel’s Oak	shrubby understory must be well-developed	often associated with hillsides	negatively correlated with percentage of dead trees
GRWA	ponderosa pine sometimes with an oak component	trees must be mature at least 40-70 ft tall		patch sizes should be greater than 2ac